The Lebanese National Movement (LNM) (Arabic: الحركة الوطنية اللبنانية) , was
a front of parties and organizations active during the early years of the civil
war in Lebanon. It was led by Kamal Jumblatt, a prominent Druze leader of the
Jumblatt family of Lebanon.
The LNM represented one of the two main forces during the first round of
fighting in the Lebanese civil war, the other being the militias of mainly
Christian Lebanese Front which comprises the Phalange, the National Liberal
Party and others; as well as parts of the Maronite-dominated central government.
The LNM had been founded out of the Front for Progressive Parties and
National Forces in 1969, as a self-proclaimed "democratic, progressive and
non-sectarian" front. Its membership was overwhelmingly left-wing and professed
to be secular, although the fairly obvious sectarian appeal of Jumblatt's
Progressive Socialist Party (PSP) and some of the Sunni Arab nationalist
organizations in some cases made this claim debatable. To say that the LNM was a
Muslim organization would however be a gross oversimplification. Its main claims
are: the abrogation of sectarism, political and social reforms, the clear
proclamation of the arabity of Lebanon, more support to the Palestinian struggle
and the demission of President Suleiman Frangieh.Soon after the outbreak of the
war, it announces the creation of an executive structure, "the central political
council". more here:Lebanese
National Movement (LNM)
Lebanon (IPA: /l?.b?.n?n/) (Arabic: ????? Lubnān) (French: Liban), officially
the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: ????????? ?????????) (French: La République
Libanaise), is a small, largely mountainous country in the Middle East, located
at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the
north and east, and Israel to the south. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon
follows a special political system, known as confessionalism, meant to
distribute power as evenly as possible among different sects.
The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded
by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. This, and the very name
of the country itself, are in reference to the verses of the Old Testament
(mostly in Psalms) that speak of "Arzei HaL'vanon," or "Cedars of Lebanon."
Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and
prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the
economy. It is considered the banking capital of the Arab world and was widely
known as the "Switzerland of the Middle East" due to its financial power.
Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists, to the point that the capital
Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of the Middle East."
Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive
the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. By early 2006, a considerable
degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's
reconstruction was almost complete, and an increasing number of foreign tourists
were pouring into Lebanon's resorts. Meanwhile, Hezbollah, the Islamic
resistance movement, had established a firm foothold in Southern Lebanon. The
2006 war between Israel and Hezbollah brought mounting civilian and military
casualties, extensive damage to civilian infrastructure, and massive population
displacement from July 12, 2006 until a ceasefire went into effect on August 14,
2006.
Etymology
The name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Lebnan" or "Lebnèn" in local
dialect) is derived from the Semitic root "LBN", which is linked to several
closely-related meanings in various languages, such as white and milk. This is
regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon. Occurrences of the name
have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 bc),
the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 bc), and the Bible. The word Lebanon is
also mentioned 71 times in the Old Testament. The name is even recorded in
Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where r and l were interchangeable.
Geography and climate
Geography of Lebanon
Enlarge picture
Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain
ranges
Lebanon is located in Southwest Asia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to
the west along a 225 km coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel
to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for km ( mi) and the
Lebanon-Israel border for km ( mi). The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan
Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but
the border has been demarcated by the United Nations (see Blue Line).
Lebanon has a total area of km ( sq mi), making it the 166th largest country in
the world. Most of that area is mountainous terrain, except for the narrow
coastline and the Beqaa Valley, an integral part of Lebanon's agriculture.
Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are
generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated
areas, temperatures usually drop below 0 °C (32 °F) during the winter with
frequent (sometimes heavy) snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry.
Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually
(compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon
receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front
block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.
In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which
now serve as the country's national emblem. However, centuries of trading cedar
trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to
replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests.<ref
name="cedar" />
Governorates and districts
Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: ??????? —singular
mohafazah, Arabic: ??????) which are further subdivided into twenty-five
districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa). The districts themselves are also divided
into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The
governorates and their respective districts are listed below:
North
Akkar
Miniyeh-
Danniyeh
Zgharta
Koura
Tripoli
Bsharri
Batroun
Mount
Lebanon
Jbeil
Kesrwan
Matn
Beirut
?
Baabda
Aley
Chouf
South
Jezzine
Sidon
Tyre
Beqaa
Hermel
Baalbek
Zahle
Western
Beqaa
Rashaya
Nabatieh
Hasbaya
Nabatieh
Marjeyoun
Bint
Jbeil
'''Beirut Governorate The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and
is limited to the city of Beirut. Nabatiyeh Governorate (Jabal Amel) - 4
districts
* Nabatieh
* Hasbaya
* Marjeyoun
* Bint Jbeil
Beqaa Governorate - 5 districts
* Hermel
* Baalbek
* Zahle
* Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi)
* Rashaya
North Governorate (al-Shamal) - 7 districts
* Akkar
* Tripoli
* Zgharta
* Bsharri
* Batroun
* Koura
* Miniyeh-Danniyeh
Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan) - 6 districts
* Jbeil
* Kesrwan
* Matn
* Baabda
* Aley
* Chouf
South Governorate (al-Janoub) - 3 districts
* Sidon (Saida)
* Tyre (Sur)
* Jezzine
Demographics and religion
Demographics of Lebanon
No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political
sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance. It is
estimated that about 59% are Muslims (Sunni, Shia, Druze, and Alawites) and 39%
are Christians (mostly Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Melkite
Greek Catholics, Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic). Lebanon has a
population of Kurds (also known as Mhallami or Mardinli). The numbers per
regilion vary from time to time, but mostly the Shia are the majority in the
Muslims and the Maronite in the Christians. According to statistics, the
distribution of sects in Lebanon measures as follows: Christians (all sects)
37%, Shias 34%, Sunnis 20%, Druz 7%, others 2%.
The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,874,050 in July
2006.<ref name="cia" /> There are approximately 16 million people of Lebanese
descent spread all over the world, Brazil being the country with the biggest
Lebanese community abroad. Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, France, Great
Britain, Mexico, Venezuela, USA, West Africa, and the Dominican Republic also
have large Lebanese communities.
A total of 394,532 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the
United Nations Relief and Works Agency (unrwa) since 1948.
Economy
Economy of Lebanon
The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise. Over the
course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout
the world. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most
European nations and the highest among Arab countries.
Agriculture
Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water
availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of
cultivable land in the Arab world. Ironically though, Lebanon does not have a
large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce,
agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes
approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank
compared to other economic sectors. Most of the plants that are grown
include:apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.
Industry
Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab
countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in
significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited
to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In
2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working
population, and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.
Services and commerce
A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage
Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in
spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial
secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant
economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking
activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of
the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%) have
preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job
opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very
large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.
The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism
and concern, since this renders the country subject to the instability of this
sector and the vagaries of international trade.
Historical development
The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut
national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Southwest
Asian entrep?t and banking hub.<ref name="cia" /> The subsequent period of
relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut,
begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities.
Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and
resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances,
banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the
main sources of foreign exchange.
Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with
bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars. By the end of the first half of
2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon has already registered a 49.3% increase
over 2005 figures.<ref name="economy-stat" /> Market capitalization was also at
an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of
2006, just weeks before the fighting started.
The war severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism
sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of
Finance on August 30, 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of
the fighting.
Beirut airport (Rafiq Hariri International Airport) re-opened in September 2006
and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a
slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi
Arabia (with 1.5 billion US dollars pledged), the European Union (with about $1
billion) and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800
million.
Education
All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed
curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately
1,400 in all, may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from
the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are Mathematics, Sciences,
History, Civics, Geography, Arabic, and French, English or both. Other rotating
teachers within the school teach Physical Education, Art, and at times library
use. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in
Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects.
The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by
giving 11th graders choice between three "concentrations": Sciences, Humanities
or economy, and 12th graders choice between four concentrations: Life Sciences
(SV), General Sciences (SG), Sociology and Economics (SE), and Humanities and
Literature (LH). The choices in concentration do not include major changes in
the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the
concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while
subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute
significantly to the final grade.
Students go through three academic phases:
* Elementary: six years.
* Intermediate: three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese
Brevet) at completion.
* Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate
Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th
grade.
These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years
are, by law, compulsory. Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of
being fully enforced.
Higher education
Following high school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a
college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete
each program varies.
While the Lebanese educational system offer a very high quality and
international class of education, the local employment market lacks of enough
opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad; You
can find successful Lebanese engineers, doctors, businessmen, etc. practically
all over the world.
Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are
internationally recognized. The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the
Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first
Francophone universities to open in Lebanon respectively. The forty-one
universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as
these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon.
At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style
high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate
equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them
to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have
already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the
official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school
that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the year.
These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II.
There are several prestigious universities in Lebanon, including the Lebanese
University, the American University of Beirut, the Université Saint-Joseph, and
the Lebanese American University. In addition, some students choose to study
abroad. The United Nations assigned Lebanon an Education Index of 0.84 in 2005.
Culture
Lebanese nationals, particularly some Christians, tend to emphasize aspects of
Lebanon's non-Arab history as a mark of respect to encompass all of Lebanon's
historical makeup instead of only that which began during the Arab conquests. In
this respect, it would be wrong to dismiss Lebanon's mosaic culture as only
Arabic when it is clear that it is a blend of indigenous and invading or foreign
cultures that have given it the title of the crossroads between east and west
for centuries. Over the centuries, Maronites formed a bond with the Pope and in
the French period Maronites eagerly took part in France's mission civilisatrice.
There is also an old Maronite standard, dating from the early 19th century
writings of Tannus al Shidyaq, that the Maronites are the direct descendants of
the Phoenicians. In the 1920s Michel Chiha expanded this idea of Phoenicianness.
In a concession to Lebanon's Eastern and Western heritage, some Lebanese prefer
to see Lebanon as part of "Mediterranean" or "Levantine" civilization, neither
Arab nor European.
The non Arabness only applies to small segments of the culture. Everyone born
and raised in Lebanon communicates using Arabic in a Lebanese dialect. This
applies to its Islamic, Christian, Druze, and other religious practices. Some
words in use are Turkish remnants of the Ottoman rule (until WWI). Some chanting
in a few churches and on Easter and Christmas holidays is performed in Syriac ,
but this is a largely dying practice. Some minorities like Kurds and Armenians
use their own languages in everyday speak and cultural interactions. These
minorities are estimated at around 2-3%. Language, food, music, arts and various
cultural facets are local Lebanese and performed practically all in Arabic. The
youth today are quite westernized and "modernized" breaking away with traditions
like most other larger cities in the world (dating, western music, food, etc.)
Compared to other Arab cities, Lebanese cities (especially Beirut) are more
westernized and tolerant, and overt towards men-women relations than most Arab
cities, like Damascus, Cairo, Baghdad...
Food and music overlap greatly with those of Egypt, Greece, Syria, Palestine and
Turkey (all were Ottoman provinces for 500 years.) While dress was historically
similar to the Turks, today the Lebanese dress quite similarly to western
countries.
Overview
The area including modern Lebanon has been for thousands of years a melting pot
of various civilizations and cultures. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and
then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the
Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French,
Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these
groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious
groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly
successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine - and
numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When
compared to the rest of the Middle East, Lebanese society as a whole is well
educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate. Lebanese society
is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. It is
often considered to serve as the European gateway to the Middle East as well as
the Arab gateway to the Western World.
Language
Lebanon's official languages are Arabic and French. Armenian and English are
also widely spoken and understood. Virtually all Lebanese are at least
trilingual. Many Lebanese speak a patois of some combination of these four
languages—most commonly an Arabic-French mixture—which can be very difficult for
other Arab speakers to understand.
Spoken Arabic is one part of a grouping of dialects called Levantine Arabic,
differing greatly from the literary Modern Standard Arabic, and owing its
historical blend to the Syriac dialect of Aramaic and Arabic. It is a fusion
between Syriac and Arabic as well as some Turkish, and thus in this respect can
be more correctly classified as a language from Arabic, albeit very similar due
to its relationship on the tree of Semitic languages. Regional influences and
occupations throughout the centuries could possibly explain why Lebanese people
speak so many languages, even incorporating them into their own.
Due to the importance of the Lebanese diaspora and business interests of
Lebanese worldwide, it has always been important to master languages other than
Arabic. Many of Lebanon's best educational institutions offer primary
instruction in French, or English depending on whether the school, university,
or college follows the French or American education systems. These have strict
rules that the students are taught in the language of the school's origin.
In the Christian communities, until the Lebanese Civil War, it was seen as a
mark of status to not speak Arabic. The reason for this could possibly be that
Christians generally were educated in many of the French educational
institutions and so a general Francophonic class emerged in their communities.
In some places French still is preferred to Arabic, and English has been making
significant headway in the past 15-20 years. However, as the Muslim population
increased in previously Christian areas, Arabic in public is omnipresent, not
merely commonplace.
Cuisine
Lebanese Cuisine,(Arabic , ????????? ????????? ), (French La Gastronomie
Libanaise) or foods from Lebanon, are considered a Mediterranean basically
Levantine Arabic delicacy consisting of a variety of fresh vegetarian recipes,
salads and stews all seasoned with a flavorsome combination of herbs and spices.
One of the most world known Lebanese specialties is called the Maza, also
written "Mezze", which is a selection of appetisers: olives, cheeses, Labanee,
or small portions also known as muqabbilat (Arabic for starters).
As with most Mediterranean cuisines, Lebanese cuisine is considered to be a very
balanced, healthy diet.
The cuisine of Lebanon is the epitome of the Mediterranean diet. It includes an
abundance of starches, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and seafood; animal fats
are consumed sparingly. Poultry is eaten more often than red meat, and when red
meat is eaten it is usually lamb. It also includes copious amounts of garlic and
olive oil-nary a meal goes by in Lebanon that does not include these two
ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked or sauted in olive oil;
butter or cream is rarely used other than in a few desserts. Vegetables are
often eaten raw or pickled as well as cooked. While the cuisine of Lebanon
doesn't boast an entire repertoire of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices and
the freshness of ingredients; the assortment of dishes and combinations are
almost limitless. The meals are full of robust, earthy flavors and, like most
Mediterranean countries, much of what the Lebanese eat is dictated by the
seasons.
Creative Arts
Lebanese music is known around the world for its soothing rhythms and oriental
beats. Traditional and folk music are extremely popular as are western rhythms.
Perhaps the best-known and listened to Lebanese singer is Fairuz. Her songs are
broadcast every morning on most radio stations and many TV channels, both in
Lebanon and the Arab world in general. Other artists are also well known and
loved like Majida El Roumi, Marcel Khalife who is also a composer, oud player,
and Julia Boutros. Some Lebanese artists like Najwa Karam and Assi Hellani
remain loyal to a traditional type of music known as 'Jabali' (from the
mountains), while many other artists incorporate western style into their songs.
Lebanese artists are perhaps the most popular in the Arab world alongside
Egyptian performers, and the star scene includes prominent figures like Najwa
Karam, Nancy Ajram, Elissa (singer), Haifa Wehbe, Ragheb Alame, Myriam Fares,
Wael Kfoury, Nawal al Zoghbi, Carole Samaha, Julia Boutros, Marwan Khouri,
Waleed Tawfeek, Amal Hijazi and Majida El Roumi. The openness of lebanese
previously cited allows a perfect tolerance for foreign or western music too .
One could easily experience any kind of music in downtown Beirut or peripherals;
for example: rock fans could visit "Nova" pub ; for blues and jazz fans , "the
blue note" ; techno and trance fans , "basement" and " B.O. 18" .... Lebanese
artist and Lebanese music is sometimes influenced by foreign music too ... For
instance , "Lebanese rock" (Ghassan rahbani) or "Lebanese rap"(Aaks El seir")
Sports
Because of Lebanon's unique geography, both summer and winter sports thrive in
the country. In fact, in fall and spring it is sometimes possible to engage in
both in one day, skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean during
the afternoon.
Lebanon boasts six ski resorts, with slopes suitable for skiers and snowboarders
of all ages and levels of experience. Off-slope, there are many opportunities
for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling.
In the summer, skilifts can be used to access some of Lebanon's best hiking
trails, with panoramic views stretching as far as Cyprus to the west and Syria
to the east on clear days. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming,
sailing and spelunking are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon.
Adventure and extreme sports are also possible throughout the country.
At the competitive level, basketball, football are among Lebanon's most popular
sports. In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the Asian Cup and the Pan-Arab
Games; the country will host the Winter Asian Games in 2009. To meet the needs
of these international competitions, Lebanon maintains state-of-the-art athletic
facilities, which in turn encourage local sporting activities. Lebanon sends
athletes to both the winter and summer games of the Olympics and Special
Olympics.
Lebanon has a national rugby league team that competed in the 2000 World Cup but
was knocked out in the group stage. They are currently in the process of
qualifying for the 2008 World Cup. The national team also competes in the annual
Mediterranean Cup where it has been quite successful. The Lebanese Rugby League
has its headquarters in Biakout in Lebanon. They are associate members of the
Rugby League European Federation and run a domestic competition comprising five
clubs, who play in two seasons a year - spring and winter.
The most famous Lebanese rugby league player is Hazem El Masri who currently
plays in Australia with the National Rugby League and holds the point scoring
record in a season. He is highly respected in Australia for his social work.
The Beirut International Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from
Lebanon and abroad. Shorter races are also held for youth and less serious
competitors. Race day is promoted as a fun, family event, and it has become a
tradition for many to participate in costumes or outlandish clothing.
Arts and literature
In literature, Gibran Khalil Gibran is known to be one of the world's famous
writers, particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated
into more than twenty different languages.
Several contemporary Lebanese writers have achieved international success;
including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf and Hanan al-Shaykh.
In art, Moustafa Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Mustafa Farroukh
(1901-1957) was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century.
Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New
York to Beruit over his career. His work was applauded for its representation of
real life in Lebanon in pictures of the country, its people and its customs.
Farroukh became highly regarded as a Lebanese nationalist painter at a time when
Lebanon was asserting its political independence. His art captured the spirit
and character of the Lebanese people and he became recognized as the outstanding
Lebanese painter of his generation. His total paintings were more than 2000 sold
to collectors inside and outside of Lebanon. He also wrote five books and taught
art at the American University of Beruit.
Enlarge picture
Beiteddine Palace, the venue of Beiteddine Festival
Among the best-known Lebanese musicians are the singer Fairuz and her son Ziad
Rahbani, Magida El- Roumi, Sabbah,Wadie El Safi, Nasre Shams El-Din, oud player
Marcel Khalife,etc..
Festivals
Several international festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned
artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are
the summer festivals at Baalbek, Beiteddine, and Byblos. Beirut in particular
has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion
shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums,
theatres, and public spaces.
Politics
Lebanon
This article is part of the series:
Politics of Lebanon
* Constitution
* President
* mile Lahoud
* Prime Minister
* Fouad Siniora
* Present government
* Parliament
* Speaker
* Political parties
* Elections
* Governorates
* Districts
* Foreign relations
Other countries :commons:Atlas of Lebanon Atlas
Politics of Lebanon
Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special
system known as confessionalism. This system, meant to insure that sectarian
conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic
distribution of religious sects in the governing body. As such, high-ranking
offices in the government are reserved for members of specific religious groups.
The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Prime
Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian, and
the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim.
This trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which
are divided proportionally between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the
ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put
an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal
representation to followers of the two religions.<ref name="confessional" />
According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament
every four years, although for much of Lebanon’s recent history, civil war
precluded the exercise of this right.
The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term. At the
urging of the Syrian government, this constitutional rule has been bypassed by
ad hoc amendment twice in recent history. Elias Hrawi’s term, which was due to
end in 1995, was extended for three years. This procedure, denounced by
pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow émile Lahoud to remain
in office until 2007.
The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament
(which is, in most cases, binding). Following consultations with the parliament
and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere
to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism. Lebanon's judicial
system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The
Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts
of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious
courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own
communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.
Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such
marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to
legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from
Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also
has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other
crimes that are considered to be security-related. These military courts have
been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for
"seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having
"very wide jurisdiction over civilians".
History
History of Lebanon
History of ancient Lebanon
The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC.
Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest
continuously-inhabited city in the world, remnants of prehistoric huts with
crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence
of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of
the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.
Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread
across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great. After two centuries
of Persian rule, Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the leading
Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times,
the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian,
Greco-Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman.
French mandate and independence
French Mandate of Lebanon
Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as
Greater Syria, until 1916 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of
Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of
Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria. Lebanon was a
largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing
many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese
Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still
administered under the French Mandate for Syria.
History of the Levant
Stone Age
Kebaran · Natufian culture ·
Halafian culture · Jericho
Ancient History
Sumerians · Ebla · Akkadian Empire ·
Canaan · Phoenicians
Amorites · Aramaeans · Edomites · Hittites
Nabataeans ·Palmyra · Philistines ·Israel and Judah
Assyrian Empire · Babylonian Empire
Persian Empire · Seleucid Empire ·
Hasmonean kingdom
Roman Empire · Byzantine Empire
The Middle Ages
Umayyad · Abbasid · Fatimid
· Mamluks
Ottoman Empire
Modern Times
Jordan · Israel
Palestinian territories
Syria · Lebanon
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Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.
General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a
major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941
allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they
were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany
would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy
government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.
After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area.
Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de
Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941
General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under
the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on
November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate.
The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of
international pressure, the French released the government officials on November
22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon.
The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last
French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943
required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim.
Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of
political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958)
interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for
finance and trade.
1948 Arab-Israeli war
Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined its fellow Arab states and
invaded Israel during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support
of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in
Syria while attempting an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State. After the
defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in Operation Hiram, Lebanon accepted an
armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949. Approximately 100,000 Palestinian
refugees were living in Lebanon in 1949 as a result of the creation of Israel on
the land of Palestine and the subsequent war. The Lebanese-Israeli border
remained closed, but quiet, until after the Six Day War in 1967.
Civil war and beyond
Lebanese civil war
In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen
years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of
human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and
another 200,000 maimed. The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif
Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.
During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to
launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the
Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982 , the PLO expelled in the second
invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there
was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw
due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief
that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli
presence. The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the
blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a
border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that
it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.
Recent history
Cedar Revolution
Cedar Revolution
Assassinations
On February 14, 2005 former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a
car bomb explosion near the Saint George Bay in Beirut. Leaders of the March 14
Alliance accused Syria of the attack, due to its extensive military and
intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and
Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian
President Lahoud's term in office. Syria denied any involvement.<ref
name="Syria-assassin" /> Others, namely the Forces of March 8 and Syrian
officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the American
CIA or the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country. The Hariri
assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that
led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.
Investigation and proposed UN tribunal
The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April
7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik
Hariri. The findings of the investigation were officially published on October
20, 2005 in the Mehlis report. The report suggested the assassination was
carried out by a group with considerable resources, that it had been prepared
many months in advance, and that the group had detailed knowledge of Hariri’s
movements.
This investigation into the Hariri assassination is ongoing and has yet to be
concluded. On January 17, 2006 the UN appointed Serge Brammertz to continue the
investigation; several reports of his investigation have been published albeit
with no conclusive results.
The United Nations Security Council and the Lebanese cabinet have approved a
Special Tribunal for Lebanon that would prosecute those responsible for Hariri's
death. Under UNSCR Resolution 1757, the tribunal is now in the process of being
established.
Demonstrations
On February 28, 2005, with over 50,000 people demonstrating in Martyrs' Square,
Prime Minister Omar Karami and his Cabinet resigned. In response, Hezbollah
organized a large counter-demonstration attended by hundreds of thousands of
people, which was staged on March 8 in Beirut, supporting Syria and accusing
Israel and the United States of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs.
On March 14, 2005, one month after Hariri's assassination, throngs of people
rallied in Martyrs' Square in Lebanon with around 1 million people. Protesters
marched demanding the truth about Hariri's murder and independence from Syrian
presence in Lebanon. The march reiterated their desire for a sovereign,
democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony.
In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian
areas near Beirut. Although the damage was mostly material, these acts
threatened to drag Lebanon back into sectarian strife.
Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began
withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. By April 26, 2005, all
uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria. On April
27, 2005, anti-Syrian Lebanese celebrated their first free-from-Syria day. UN
forces led by Senegalese Brig. Gen. Mouhamadou Kandji and Lebanese Brig. Gen.
Imad Anka were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was
mandated by UN Security Council Resolution 1559.
Elections
During the first parliamentary elections held after Syria's withdrawal from
Lebanon in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of Sunni Muslim, Druze and
Christian parties led by Saad Hariri, son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister
Rafik Hariri, won a majority of seats in the new Parliament. The Free Patriotic
Movement (FPM), though not allied with the Rafik Hariri Martyr List during the
elections, garnered strong representation in the newly elected Parliament.
The political alliances were interesting in that in some areas the anti-Syrian
coalition allied with Hezbollah and in others with Amal. They did not win the
two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian-appointed
President Lahoud voted for by Rafik Hariri parliamentary bloc, due to the
unexpectedly strong showing of formerly exiled General Michel Aoun's Free
Patriotic Movement party in Mount Lebanon. Despite being staunchly anti-Syrian
during his 15-year exile, upon his return Aoun aligned himself with politicians
who were friendly to the Syrians in the past decade: Soleiman Franjieh Jr and
Michel Murr. Their alliance dominated the north and the Matn District of Mount
Lebanon. Saad Hariri and Walid Jumblatt joined forces with the two staunchly
pro-Syrian Shiite movements, Hezbollah and Amal, to secure major wins in the
South, Beqaa, as well as the Baabda and Aley districts of Mount Lebanon. This
alliance proved temporary. On February 6, 2006 Hezbollah signed an understanding
of disarmament with Michel Aoun, the leader of the Free Patriotic Movement.
After the elections, Hariri's Future Movement party, now the country's dominant
political force, nominated Fouad Siniora, a former Finance Minister, to be Prime
Minister. His newly formed representative government has obtained the vote of
confidence from the parliament.
On July 18, 2005, Lebanon elected a new parliament dominated by an anti-Syrian
coalition. This parliament approved a motion to free Samir Geagea, leader of the
Christian Lebanese Forces, who had spent most of the past eleven years in
solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news. The motion
was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President émile Lahoud the next day.
2006 Lebanon War
On July 12, 2006 a group of Hezbollah fighters infiltrated Israel's border with
Lebanon, attacked an Israeli patrol, killed 3 soldiers, and captured two.
Simultaneously, Hezbollah started shelling Israeli army positions along the
Lebanon-Israel border to provide cover for the infiltrating party. The goal of
this attack was to capture Israeli soldiers and exchange them later for
prisoners held by Israel. This operation sparked a military response against
Hezbollah targets. The fighting quickly escalated into 33 days of "open war" and
ultimately led to the death of 1,191 Lebanese civilians and 44 Israeli civilians
. During this war, Israel destroyed much of Lebanon's infrustructure including
bridges, Rafik Hariri Beirut International airport, factories, roads, Beirut
Port and whole blocks in the Southern Suburbs of Beirut as well as whole
villages in the South of Lebanon. Over the course of the war 4,409 Lebanese were
injured and nearly a million were displaced in southern Lebanon<ref
name="lebtoll" />, while at least 300,000 were displaced in northern Israel.<ref
name="lebtoll" />
Fighting came to end on August 14, three days after UN Security Council
Resolution 1701—which called for an immediate cessation of hostilities—was
passed. Israel, however, maintained a naval and aerial blockade on Lebanon in a
measure meant to prevent Hezbollah from smuggling arms. The blockade was lifted
on September 8, and by early December, all Israeli troops had withdrawn from
Lebanon.
Are you interested in
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RuneScape has often been one of
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cheats....autos or bots that will help them achieve success in their beloved
games of Runescape 2.
RuneScape is a virtual world which
is divided into two part: Members Areas and Non-Members areas. People who pay to
play (p2p), receive access to the special areas. They also have access to the
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Of course the king of all game
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set in a medieval fantasy world, similar to "Guild Wars" or "EverQuest," where
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Trik.com continues IJFG.com's
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With the rising popularity of
commercial MMORPG games came the desire from ardent players of these games to
run their own servers beside the ones run by the game's creator. Since the
original server software is not usually available, the behavior of the server
has to be re-engineered. This can be done by analyzing the data stream with the
original server, or by disassembling and analyzing the client which is
available.
Ultima Online was one of the first
large MMORPGs. Due to its openness in implementation, server emulators arose
very quickly, even during the beta stage of development. The destination to
which the client connects was changeable by simply editing a text file. In beta
stage the client-server data stream was not encrypted yet. The term server
emulator became known through Ultima Online server reimplementation such as UOX,
which was the pioneer. Many forks and reimplementations followed UOX, because
its source code was released under the GNU General Public License relatively
early. RunUO is today the most widely used UO-server emulator. After RuneScape
implemented anti-cheating measures, many gamers left and started their own
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Trik- The Master of Private Server.
Another useful site is
Rune
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A defining moment in internet
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So come on down to the new type of runescape 2 cheating:
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